Greinasafn fyrir merki: Vídalinspostilla

Greinar og pistlar

Guðsmynd Vídalínspostillu

Verið velkomin til þessar fræðslusamveru Talað um Guð. Hallgrímskirkja er dásamlegt hús til að tala við Guð og líka vettvangur til að tala um Guð. Í síðustu viku var fjallað um guðsmynd Hallgríms Péturssonar. Þar kom fram að Hallgrímur hefði uppteiknað guðsmynd sem túlkuð var með áherslu á hinn líðandi konung. Kenning Hallgríms var hin ágústínska-lutherska hefð sem er dramatísk guðfræðihefð með áherslu á baráttu góðs og ills. Sá Guð sem Passíusálmar túlka er ekki Guð hátignar, fjarri lífsbaráttu manna í þessum heimi – heldur þvert á móti Guð sem lætur sér annt um veröldina, sköpun sína, að Guð kemur sjálfur – gefur eftir hátign sína og konungvald og kjör manna verða kjör hans í heimi. Hann er kaghýddur eins og Halldór Laxnes komst að orði. Jón Vídalín tók við af Hallgrími. Hann virti Hallgrím mikils, vitnaði til hans og notaði kveðskap hans við upphaf postillunnar. Gef þú að móðurmálið mitt, minn Jesú þess ég beiði, …

En Jón Vídalín lifði á öðrum tíma en Hallgrímur. Hann var ekki skáldið og prestur í sveit heldur kirkjuleiðtoginn, fræðimaðurinn og pólitíkus. Hvernig skyldi Jón Vídalín túlka og hver er munur hans og Hallgríms? Að því verður vikið en líka síðar í þessari röð fræðslusamvera.

Vídalínspostilla og Guð

Jón Þorkelsson Vídalín var maður tveggja alda. Hann fæddist á Görðum á Álftanesi að 21. mars árið 1666 og lést ofan Þingvalla á leið vestur á Snæfellsnes 30. ágúst árið 1720. Hann var og er einn af ræðusnillingum Íslands. Postilla hans er höfuðverk í ræðusöfnum Íslendinga og sýnisbók um list mælskufræði. Prédikanir hans voru lesnar í heimahúsum þjóðarinnar á helgidögum. Efni bókarinnar varð því kunnugt fólki. Eldibrandar og elskuyrði Vídalíns flugu og kveiktu bál í hugum, sókn til réttlætis og ástar til manna og Guðs. Mörgum þótti Jón Vídalín kjöftugur. Hann kunni jú vel fræðin og barokk varð að list fagurkerans, hugsuðarins, guðfræðingsins, baráttumannsins og guðsþjónsins. Í skólaskorti tíðarinnar varð þessi mikla bók ekki aðeins þekkingarbrunnur heldur var hún lestrarnámsbók þúsunda. Sum notuðu bókina til að stauta, önnur fylgdust með texta þegar lesið var og margar kynslóðir Íslendinga lærðu að hugsa með höfundinum. Jón Vídalín hafði gífurleg áhrif í tvær aldir. Nú eru meira en þrjú hundruð ár frá dauða hans við Biskupsbrekku norðan Þingvalla en erindi hans er ekki tæmt. Það er bergmál frá Vídalínspostillu í íslenskum bókmenntum og menningu.

Guðsmyndir

Trúarreynsla fólks er fjölbreytileg og svo hefur verið um allar aldir. Guðsreynsla fólks litast af persónugerð, hefðum sem fólk hefur verið alið upp í og lifir við. Svo skiptir kyn, aldur og reynsla líka máli. Sumir telja sig upplifa guðsáhrifin skýrast í náttúrunni. Aðrir verða fyrir sterkri blessunarreynslu sem breytir lífsafstöðu. Enn aðrir eru tilbúin að láta túlkunarkerfi og hóp móta sig og þar með trúarskilning. Hver er Guð og hvernig er hægt að tala um Guð? Hefur einhver skilið Guð? Við þær spurningar hafa trúmenn glímt, vitandi að skynsemi manna og skynjun eru takmörkuð. Við erum ekki alvitur og því er guðfræði okkar ekki og verður aldrei fullkomin lýsing Guðs. Við þekkjum okkur sjálf ekki fullkomlega, undirvitund okkar eða hræringar líffæranna. Við þekkjum ekki algerlega tilfinningar og hugsun maka eða barna okkar. Ef við þekkjum ekki sjálf okkur og fólkið okkar getum við ekki haldið fram að við þekkjum Guð fullkomlega.

Við notum gjarnan líkingar þegar við tölum um Guð. Við tölum um Guð sem ljós eða sem ást. Guði er lýst sem konungi, föður, dómara eða móður. Í Biblíunni er ríkulegt líkingasafn um Guð sem trúmenn í þúsundir ára hafa notað, endurunnið og bætt við. Trúmenn slípa stöðugt nýjar líkingar sem hæfa hverri samtíð til að nálgast eða tjá Guð, opna nýjar æðar skilnings og tilbeiðslu. Líkingar eru börn hvers tíma, sterkar líkingar daprast og veiklast í umróti menningar og sögu. Jafnvel líkingar um Guð hverfa ef þær ná ekki að kveikja ljós trúar, skilnings og tilbeiðslu. En þó líkingar eða lýsingar á Guði daprist eða deyji jafnvel veiklast Guði ekki þar með – heldur breytist trúar- og guðstúlkunin. Mannfólkið heldur áfram að þrá Guð þótt guðslýsingarnar breytist. Guðstrú er alls konar.

Vídalín og líkingarnar

Þá að postillunni. Jón Vídalín sagði margt um Guð. Hann var sér vel meðvitaður um orð og hugtök sem hann batt saman í samfellda mynd af guðdóminum. Vídalín var vissulega trúarrisi en líka barn síns tíma. Hann gaf sér ákveðnar forsendur um baráttu góðs og ills og hagnýtti sér hinar lúthersku guðfræðihugmyndir. Í prédikun Jóns Vídalíns á boðunardegi Maríu segir og málfarið er rótsterkt og vel kryddað. Látið ykkur ekki bregða:

„Ó, minn Guð, hvað er þó maðurinn þess, að þú minnist hans (Ps. 8). Þegar ég hugleiði þetta, þá smeltist mitt hjarta í mér út af blygðan, að soddan ein skelfileg hátign, hann gjörir sendiför ofan af sínu hásæti til vor dauðra hunda, til vor syndugra orma, þar vér skriðum í leirveltu þessari, og má hér af þessa sendiför meiri öllum velgjörðum kalla, þótt ekkert annað væri. En hvílíkur er nú þessi boðskapurinn? Það sýnir oss fyrst kveðja engilsins við Guðs móður: Heil sért þú, náðarfulla. Drottinn er með þér, blessuð sért þú á meðal kvenna.”[1]

Í þessum texta sjáum við eitt dæmi um að Jón Vídalín slengir saman hinum mestu andstæðum. Raunar kunni hann þá list til fullnustu að sauma að tilheyrendum sínum og lesendum með hjálp alls konar mælskutrixum og gera mönnum ljóst að staða þeirra væri hin háðuglegasta. Hvaða erindi á konungur himins í ormagryfju manna?

Rannsóknarsagan

Aðeins um rannsóknarsöguna og hverjir hafa rannsakað kenningu postillunnar. Margir hafa skrifað um hana og reynt að greina einkenni hugmynda Jóns og hugsana. Magnús Jónsson, prófessor og síðar alþingismaður, ritaði Vídalínsgrein í Eimreiðina árið 1920. Magnús taldi að styrkur Vídalíns hafi verið næmni á krókaleiðir hins illa í mannlífinu.[2] Páll Þorleifsson, prestur í Axarfirði og faðir fjölda þjóðkunnra systkina, hélt fram í inngangi að 1945-útgáfu postillunnar að Vídalín hefði lagt áherslu á dyggðir og sjálfsrannsókn manna.[3] Jón Helgason biskup hélt fram í kirkjusögu sinni að hin miklu skaut í kenningu Vídalíns væri skelfing syndarinnar og dýrð náðarinnar og því væri nauðsyn á afturhvarfi mannsins. Trúin hefði verið aðalatriði fyrir Vídalín en hann hann hefði ekki gert kenningu sem slíka að höfuðmáli heldur hvernig hún birtist í lífi manna.[4] Þá taldi Jón Helgason að kenning Vídalíns væri ekki Kristsmiðlæg. Sá eini, sem ritað hefur heila fræðibók um Vídalínspostillu er Arne Möller, danskur prestur og fræðimaður. Hann fullyrti að trúarhugtak Vídalíns hafi fyrst og fremst verið vitsmunalegt. Jón Vídalín hafi lagt áherslu á að menn ættu að þekkja rétta útlistun boðorðanna. Þessi vitsmunalega trúartúlkun hafi leitt til þess að Jón Vídalín hafi fallið aftur til kaþólsku og prestaáherslu með lögmálsskilningi á sakramentum, skriftum, eiðum og iðrun.[5] Áhersla Jón Vídalíns hafi verið á rétta hegðun, praxis pietatis, en ekki á trúarinnileika. Safnaðarlíf í hefðbundinni merkingu verði því útundan.[6] Þá sé kirkjutúlkun Vídalíns á villigötum klerkavæðingar. Í stað trúar safnaðar sé öll áhersla á prestinn og kirkjustofnuninni.[7] En mín skoðun er að Arne Möller hafi mislesið allt of margt. Aðferð Arne Möller var að finna út hvaða rit Jón Vídalín notaði og með því að úrskurða hvaða bækur voru Vídalín aðgengilegar hafi hann talið sig getað sýnt fram á hver væri kenning postillunnar. Sem sé að Jón Vídalín hafi ekki verið frumlegri höfundur en svo að hann hafi lotið fyrirmyndum í ósjálfstæðri hlýðni. Möller komst t.d. að þeirri niðurstöðu að bók sem Jón Vídalín hafði þýtt áður, enska ritið On the whole Duty of Man, hafi skilað til postillunnar hlýðniáherslu, siðvendni, löghyggju og vitsmunalegu trúarhugtaki.[8] Samfara þessu telur Arne Möller að Jón Vídalín sé eiginlega ekki lúterskur guðfræðingur heldur sé trúarhugtak hans og predikun fremur af ætt kalvínisma.[9] Með leit að ritgrunni sýnist mér að Arne Möller hafi rekið af leið og aðferð hans sé beinlínis röng. Túlkun hans var of einföld.

Gunnar Kristjánsson og Mörður Árnason sáu um glæsilega útgáfu Vídalínspostillu Máls og Menningar og Bókmenntastofnunar HÍ árið 1995. Það var finmtánda útgáfa postillunnar frá upphafi. Í ítarlegum formála fer Gunnar yfir rannsóknarsöguna og dregur vel saman og af þekkingu bókmenntagreinandans. Hann fer yfir guðfræðisöguna frá Lúther, áhrif barokksins, náttúruvá á íslandi, t.d. að þriðjungur þjóðarinnar féll í bólusótt í upphafi átjándu aldar og þar á meðal einkadóttir Jóns og þeirra hjóna. Ég mæli með grein Gunnars. Hún fljótlesin og skrifuð af þekkingu og yfirvegun. Mörður skrifar vel um málfar og málfræðina. Ég skrifaði á sínum tíma talsvert um Vídalínspostillu í

doktorsritgerð minni
. Gunnar nýtir þá vinnu m.a. í formála sínum. Sumt af þessu efni er aðgengilegt á heimasíðu minni. Aukinn áhugi virðist vera á verkum Jón Vídalín. Nýlega kom t.d. út bók Torfa Hjaltalín Stefánssonar um Jón Vídalín. Það er vel að sem flestir komi að verkum. Það er komin tími á að sem flestir leggi saman í fræðaþing um hann – kannski á næsta ári en þá eru þrjú hundruð ár liðin frá annari útgáfu postillunnar.

Til að opna og skýra prédikun Vídalínspostillu og draga fram einkenni hennar er mikilvægast að gaumgæfa inntak trúarhugmyndanna sjálfra í postillunni og sérstaklega Guðshugmyndirnar. Þegar skoðaðar eru guðslíkingarnar kemur vel í ljós af hverju Jóni Vídalín er tíðrætt um ákveðna þætti en aðra síður. Þá skýrist einfaldlega einnig hvers vegna mannhugsun hans er með ákveðnu móti og hvernig hann talar um Jesú Krist, um heilagan Anda og þann heim sem menn byggja. Mín skoðun er sú, að greining á guðslíkingum nái best að opna og skýra hugmyndir postillunnar og Jóns Vídalín.

Baráttan við hið illa

Höfðingi heimsins, satan, er sem flaðrandi en þjófgefinn hundur segir sveitamaðurinn Vídalín glottandi. Forsendur og samhengi guðsímyndar Vídalínspostillu er hið altæka eða kosmíska stríð sem Guð á í gegn valdi hins illa. Jón Vídalín fylgir Marteini Lúther um djöfulstjáningar. Hvorugur taldi sig þess umkomin að skilgreina vald hins illa og hvorugur taldi að vald satans væri jafnmikið valdi Guðs. Þeir aðhylltust ekki þá frumspekilega tvíhyggju að til væru tvö jafnstæð máttarvöld. En báðir aðhylltust hins vegar siðferðilega tvíhyggju að tvö völd tækjust á, annað væri gott en hitt vont. Satan er ekki skilgreindur sem hlutlaust, sjálfstætt afl heldur túlkaður í ljósi þeirra árása sem vonskan gerir á Guðsríkið. Vald satans er afvegaleitt vald Guðs og jafnframt afskræming þess valds. Atferli satans felst í því að reyna að brengla hina góðu skikkan skaparans og þar með veikja vald Guðs. Eins og Lúther lagði Jón Vídalín áherslu á hinn innri mann og trúnað hans. Vídalín fjallar ekki aðeins um einstaklinginn, innræti hans og tiltrú heldur beinir sjónum ekki síður að hinni félagslegu vídd. Maðurinn er ekki eyland. Áherslan í samfélagsmálum er sú að menn eigi fyrst og fremst að efla velferð náunga sinna bæði hvað varðar efnisleg gæði sem og andleg. Vídalín leggur áherslu á að efnisleg gæði séu ekki einráð heldur séu andlegum gæðum samfara. Þeir sem ekki trúa á Guð sýna vantrú sína í verki og snúa óhjákvæmilega baki við hinum hrjáðu og smáðu í heiminum.

Gegn valdi hins illa stendur Guð ávallt. Guð verður í baráttunni hinn snjalli herforingi. Vídalín undrast jafnvel, að Guð skuli ekki nú þegar vera búinn að setja krók á nasir andskotans (166)! Árás Guðs á ríki myrkursins var gerð með komu Jesú Krists. Hann vann sigur.

Stórkonungurinn

Tími Jóns Þorkelssonar Vídalín var konungatími. Einveldistíminn hófst formlega um það leyti sem hann fæddist. Jón Vídalín, fyrrum hermaður í her Danakóngs, nálgaðist veröld og vald með skilningi stríðsmannsins. Hann vissi að stríð væri ekkert gamanmál og áleit heiminn vera orrustuvöll stríðandi herra. Hann var raunsær á eigin breyskleika og sá vel mein samfélagsins. Sá Guð sem hann trúði á og talaði við vildi frið, hamingju manna og barðist við illskuöfl. Í ljósi styrjaldar milli Guðs og Satans er sú mynd, sem Vídalín dregur upp af Guði mótuð af því samhengi. Raunar má segja að stríð liti alla þætti í postillunni. Vídalín notar gjarnan líkingar um Guð sem tengjast baráttu. Þegar dregnar eru saman helstu ímyndir Vídalíns um Guð kemur eftirfarandi í ljós.

Í fyrsta lagi er Guði lýst sem konungi og raunar er það ímyndin af stórkonungi sem Vídalín notar. Þetta er ráðandi guðsmynd postillunnar.

Í öðru lagi er Guði lýst í líkingu löggjafa, sem er að mínu viti stuðningslíking í postillunni og túlkur konungsímyndarinnar. Guð hefur skýran vilja og setur lög bæði við stofnun ríkis síns en bregst einnig við sem góður stjórnandi við þeim aðstæðum sem upp koma og ávallt í samræmi við eðli og markmið ríkis síns.

Í þriðja lagi er guði lýst í mynd dómara sem hefur allt vald til að skera úr öllum málum. Guð hefur vald til að dæma mönnum og sköpun sinni kjör og örlög með hliðsjón af velferð einstaklinga en einnig með baráttu við hið illa í huga. Dómaralíkingin virðist vera í eðlilegu samhengi við konungsímyndina og jafnframt stuðningslíking.

Í fjórða lagi er Guði lýst sem hinum snjalla herstjóra sem er konungur í stríði. Guð fer fyrir sínum mönnum en þarfnast þeirra jafnframt til að ríkið liðist ekki í sundur og óvinurinn nái þeim völdum sem honum ber ekki og má ekki hafa.

Í fimmta lagi er Guði lýst í mynd húsbónda eða húsföður, sem jafnframt er í samræmi við konungslíkinguna og tengd hinum líkingunum. Guð sem alfaðir er bæði miskunnsamur og góður og vill sköpun sinni vel. Því er honum eiginlegt að skikka sköpun sinni kjör. Þessu tengt er handleiðsluáhersla postillunnar. Sem góður konungur og faðir gefur Guð allar þær gjafir sem skepna og menn þarfnast, mettar sem umhyggjusamt foreldri, gefur ráð, hlustar vel og skilur og veitir það sem menn þarfnast. Þrátt fyrir hátign sína er Guð þolinmóður og miskunnsamur en einnig agandi og tyftandi.

Þú stóri konungur allrar veraldar

Bæn Vídalíns fyrir predikun dregur fram með sláandi móti tilfinningu og trúnaðartraust hans til konungs himinsins. Bænir eru sem ljóð og skyldi ekki lemstra með oftúlkun og bókstafslestri. Orðalagið er mótað af tilbeiðslu og trúnaðartengslum. Við lestur bænar er vert að setja sig í spor trúmannsins í kirkju, fella varnir og klæði rökhyggjunnar. Í bæn Vídalíns er það hinn smái sem lýkur upp munni gagnvart þeim sem allt er:

„Þú stóri konungur allrar veraldar, sem býr í því ljósi, er enginn fær til komist. Vér syndugir ormar skríðum á þessari blessaðri stundu upp úr voru dufti fram á skör þinna fóta til að friðmælast við þína guðdómlega hátign, er vér með saurugum verkum og illgjörðum vorum svo þráfaldlega móðgað höfum allt í frá barnæsku vorri. En æ oss, drottinn. Vér erum svo vanmegna undir byrði syndanna, að þegar vér girnumst að lyfta oss upp í hæðirnar til þín, þá draga vor eigin saurindi oss niður aftur. Þú hefur að sönnu fyrigefið oss margar syndir og sparað oss mitt í þeim allt á þennan dag, en vort hjarta skelfur í oss og kvíðir við þínu stranga réttlæti, nær vér til þess hugsum, að vér þverbrotnar manneskjur höfum svo langsamlega forsmáð þína miskunnsemi og sjálfir ónýtt svo marga kvittun vorra synda, er vér þegið höfum, með þverúðarsamlegri iðkun sömu glæpa og illgjörða. Hvert skulum vér þá flýja undan þinni hendi? Þú uppfyllir bæði himin og jörð, en þín miskunnsemi er eins stór og þú sjálfur. Hún hefur öllum þeim vel gefist, sem hennar með bljúgu hjarta og sundur knosuðum anda leitað hafa…  …. Lát einn glóandi anda brenna upp allt sorp annarlegra þanka úr voru hjarta, sem er þitt musteri, svo þín orð fái rúm þar inni. Lát oss ekki heyra það svo í dag, að það fordæmi oss á síðasta degi, heldur gef, að það verði eftirlæti sálna vorra. Lát þess sætleika burt drífa allt tómlæti og gáleysi frá oss, svo vér varðveitum það í góðu og siðsömu hjarta… …Amen.“ (4)

Í ljósi þessarar mjög ákveðnu stórkonungsbænar er eðlilegt að búast við prédikunarefnið og hátignarræða sé keimlík í postillunni. Lútherskir guðfræðingar hafa virt mörk hugsunar og þar með löngu á undan Immanuel Kant og upplýsingunni forðast frumspekilegar lýsingar á Guði og í þeim efnum er Jón Vídalín engin undantekning. Hann reynir ekki og treystir sér ekki til að lýsa Guði nákvæmlega. Vídalín telur enga möguleika á því að skoða Guð með augum hlutleysisins. Aðeins augu trúarinnar sjá Guð. Engin opinberun hefur orðið á heild Guðs svo takmarkaður maður geti skilið. Það eitt er skiljanlegt sem Guð hefur valið að gera opinbert og það verður ekki metið án jákvæðrar afstöðu til Guðs.

Í Vídalínspostillu sem og öðrum guðsorðabókum og guðfræðiritum fyrri alda er Guði lýst sem ásýnd eða ásjónu sem snýr að mönnum. Guð verður aðeins lifaður í tengslum við upplifanir í lífi og heimi. Guðsreynsla er tengd lífsreynslu manna. Um Guð er talað í ljósi þeirrar skynjunar sem menn hafa orðið fyrir. Vídalín talar vissulega um Guð með hefðbundnu móti. Hann aðhyllist helstu kenningar kirkjunnar, t.d. þrenningarkenninguna og hefðbundna Kristsfræði. Sá Guð sem Vídalín trúir á og túlkar er Guð himins og jarðar sem er valdur veraldar og allt vald ber. Hann stjórnar öllu og allt er sköpun hans. Því skyldi hver skepna tilbiðja Guð.

Myndmálið um Guð er ríkulegt í postillunni og þjónar því markmiði að upphefja og hylla Guð, tryggja vald Guðs og mikla hátign sem best. Sjónrænar lýsingar eru algengar. Guð býr í ljósi og er ljós (4, 273). Guði er einnig lýst sem eyðandi eldi, ógnarlegum sem og dýrlegum. Guð býr í dýrðarljóma sem enginn færi komist til af sjálfsdáðum. Guð er hreinleiki sem ekkert saurugt þolir við hástól sinn. Guð býr í hátignarsal og frá honum verður ekki flúið því hátign hans felur jafnframt í sér yfirlit og nærveru (200, 273). Tengt hátign eru síðan hinar hefðbundnu guðfræðilegu lofsyrði og elskutjáningar um alvitund Guðs, almætti, eilífð, ómælanleika og hversu Guð sé meiri elska og undur en það sem við menn skiljum og skynjum.

Guð – skapari og löggjafi

Guði er gjarnan lýst í Vídalínspostillu sem viljaveru, sem bæði ákvarðar gerð og eðli sköpunar en einnig sem löggjafa. Vilji Guðs er ofar öllu í krafti tignar og forræðis Guðs. Menn hafa að sjálfsögðu rétt til viðbragða og skapa sér eigin örlög. En þegar grannt er skoðað er kenning postillunnar sú að mönnum sé fyrir bestu að hlíta vilja og skikkan Skaparans. Vídalín kennir að Guði skapi aðeins það sem er gott og nytsamlegt. Allt sem menn þiggja af Guði er til góðs (86). Guð skapar bæði himin og jörð og veitir öllu lífi þau gæði sem þörf er á til hamingjuríks lífs, líkama, önd, ráð, skilning, elsku, fæðu, fögnuð og alla saðningu manna og skepnu. Markmið sköpunar er friður milli Guðs og manna. Vídalín telur þennan frið mikilvægari en frið milli manna (57). Öll skikkan í heiminum er Guðs gjöf, foreldrar og samfélagsskipan. Við eigum því að hlýða foreldrum og vera sönn í samfélagi (138). Guð mun ekki láta af að útdeila mönnum gæðum og mætti. Guð mun ekki þreytast þótt menn verði örmagna og ekki verða snauður þó menn verði uppiskroppa. Guð mun að lyktum bjóða mönnum til veislu með sér á himnum (134, 167, 260).

Svo er það með frelsi konungsins á öld einveldisins. Vídalín minnir á að enginn konungur er bundinn af lögum sem hann hefur sett. Konungum er heimilt að rétta lögin og endurskoða með hliðsjón af nýjum aðstæðum þó menn séu bundnir af þeim. Lög Guðs tengjast hinum hulda vilja sem maðurinn fær ekki skilið en Guð skilur (213). Þar sem Guð er vitur stjórnandi veit Guð hvað mönnum er fyrir bestu (235). Í orði sínu hefur Guð opinberað vilja sinn og speki, réttlæti og gæsku. Í spegli laga Guðs sem eru fyrirmæli um hegðun og líferni fáum við vitund um stefnu okkar en jafnframt hver staða okkar er (630). Vegna breyskleika og syndugs lífernis manna hefur Guð sent mönnum lögmál sem herjar á og dæmir menn seka. Hið ægilega í mannlífi er að við erum í bullandi órétti gagnvart Guði (51). Guð vill fyrst og fremst að við viðurkennum stöðu okkar og sekt, skömmumst okkar og iðrumst og auðmýkjum okkur og komum fram fyrir Guð með sundurknosaðan anda.

Guð dómarinn

Tengt löggjafarstarfi Guðs er dómaratign hans. Þar sem Guð er hátignin sjálf, réttlátur og strangur og hefur þar að auki lögmál eru menn stöðuglega í órétti gagnvart Guði. Guð hefur því eiginlega sjálfdæmi í málum manna. Þar sem forsenda Guðs er velferð allra manna útdeilir Guð kjörum sem bæði eru til hins besta í lífi manna sem og lúta baráttu Guðs fyrir rétti og gæsku í heiminum. Enginn maður getur áfrýjað hæstaréttardómi Guðs. Menn eiga stöðugt á hættu að dómarinn sendi þá frá réttinum eða skyrpi þeim burt eins og Jón Vídalín orðaði það. Allt hvílir á almættisákvörðun. Guð ákvarðar og útvelur. En menn hafa rétt til að standa stöðugir í köllun sinni en allir falla þó í breyskleika sínum. Dómur Guðs er mönnum ægilegur veruleiki vegna þess hve sekir og óréttlátir menn eru og hversu heilagur og hátignarfullur Guð er. Þegar Guð útdeilir kjörum meðal manna má maður ekki mögla, því gæði eru gjafir Guðs. Maðurinn á ekkert gott skilið í krafti eigin verðleika. Dómarahlutverk Guðs er því annars vegar tjáning á alveldi og fullkomnu réttlæti. Guð hefur allan rétt og allan mátt. En hins vegar er þessu hlutverki tengd miskunnsemi. Dómarinn aumkvar sig yfir þá sem ekkert eiga annað en glæpi. Dómarahlutverkið er því mótað af stórkonungsímyndinni og tengt föðurhugmyndinni og einnig herstjórnarlíkingunni. Guð á í stríði og vill að menn hans séu með í baráttunni en ekki fjarri vígvelli.

Guð herstjórinn

Þar sem satan ræðst á ríki Guðs á öllum sviðum er aðalstarfi Guðs í heiminum í kjölfar syndafallsins að berjast við þennan óvin. Baráttan er altæk. Guði er gjarnan lýst í mynd hins snjalla herstjóra. Þar sem Guð á fyrir þegnum að sjá verður hann að stjórna lífi þeirra sem best, reyna þá og treysta til þeirrar baráttu sem þeir geta ekki flúið eða skorast undan. Guð leyfir t.d. að hinir kristnu menn verði á stundum niðurþrykktir þó Guð leyfi aldrei að þeir verði algerlega undirþrykktir eins og segir í postillunni (189). Hinn kristni maður á að taka þátt í baráttu Guðs. Stærsti sigur Guðs varð þegar Guð varð maður í Jesú Kristi. Guðssonurinn tók á sig mannlegt hold, leið hungur þorsta, klæðleysi, útlegð, örbirgð, háð og spott til að opinbera vald Guðs og vinna sigur á ríki satans. Guð lætur hinn illa falla á eigin bragði, beitir brögðum og ofkeyrir óvininn í glímunni við Jesú Krist. Með því fær Guð stjórnað. (244-45). Á jarðlífsgöngu verða menn bardagamenn fyrir Guð og verða að vera sannir í lífi sínu til að veldi Guðs verði ekki ógnað og sigur hins góða vinnist (628).

Guð faðir

Föðurímynd af Guði í Vídalínspostillu er til stuðnings konungslíkingunni. Sem faðir allra manna er Guð umhyggjusamur, langlyndur, miskunnsamur og góðviljaður (53, 364, 23. En sem dómari og konungur er faðirinn einnig hinn strangi uppalandi, sem ekki líður óreglu og óhlýðni í lífi manna. Guð elur upp í ótta og festu, tyftar og stjórnar með styrkri hendi. En Guð bægir ekki frá mönnum háska og erfiðleikum, freistingum, meðlæti og mótlæti (164, 168, 223-24, 359, 364, 604, 616). Þessi agandi guðsstjórn tekur bæði til sálarlífs, líkamsþátta manna sem og samfélagsmála og sögu. Á öllum sviðum vill Guð leiða allt til hins besta vegar. Guði föður er ekki síst umhugað um þau sem eru smáð og minnimáttar. Fyrir slíkum elur Guð sérstaka önn.[10] Viðbrögð manna skyldu því vera traust á hverju sem gengur (364).

Niðurlag

Vídalínspostilla er litrík, gjöful, stórkostleg á köflum, skemmtiefni og áhrifarík. Hún dró dám af tímanum sem hún var skrifuð inn í. Viðtakendur voru ekki yfirstétt Íslendinga heldur fólk í landinu. Hún er ekki aðeins hirðisbréf kirkjuleiðtoga heldur líka innlegg í pólitík tímans, prestsleg huggunarbók, siðfræði, bók elskunnar um dásemd lífsins, klassísk fræði og faðmvíð og djúprist kristinfræði.

Guðsmyndin er skýr í þessu riti. Málfarið er klassískt, litríkt og rhetórískt. Vídalín notaði meðvitað myndmál um hið guðlega. Í þessu mikla riti er ekki lengur áhersla á hinn líðandi, kaghýdda kóng eins og í Passíusálmum, heldur er Guð stórkonungurinn í stríði. Þannig hafa orðið skil tímanna frá ljóðmælandanum Hallgrími til kirkjuhirðisins Jóns Vídalíns á miklum umbrotatíma. Einu sinni var sagt að Jón Vídalín hefði verið igenio ad magna nato – borinn til stórvirkja. Og guðsmynd hans er líka vörpun á lífi hans, stöðu, hugsun, verkefnum og lífsreynslu upp á himinn hugmyndanna og trúartúlkunar. Afstaða margra túlkenda postillunnar er að boðskapur postillunnar hafi stuðlað að áherslu meðal alemnnings á réttlæti í samfélagininu, mannúð og manngildi. Það er rétt en postillan var hin hliðin á trúarpeningnum. Þeir töluðu saman og í samhljómi Hallgrímur og Vídalín um Guð og heim. Þeir lýsa báðir að allt er markað, takmarkað, mannlíf líka. Og Guð sem elskar umvefur takmörk og opnar. Hallgrímur lýsti hinum líðandi kóngi en Vídalín hinum sigrandi kóngi. Líkinganotkunin gekk upp hjá hvorum um sig en varð ekki til að menningin brotnaði, andstæður mögnuðust heldur að fólk gat numið og lifað sig í báðar víddir.

Ég las mig algerlega inn í postillu Jóns Vídalíns á sínum tíma og þegar ég kom út var dýpst skynjunin að hann væri ekki stórkonungsdýrandi heldur guðsdýrkandi trúmaður. Það eru tengslin við elsku heimsins sem Vídalín tjáir með hinu litríka og oft stórkallalega málfari. Sensus eða dýpt ritsins varðar undrið mikla – Guð.

Í næstu viku stekk ég yfir tvær aldir – hefði viljað ræða um rómantíkina, Mynster, Pjetur Pjetursson biskup, Jón Bjarnason Vesturheimsklerk, risana Harald Níelsson og Jón Helgason, Pál Sigurðsson og Helga Hálfdánarson líka. En það bíður betri tíma og við munum ganga inn í undraheim Sigurbjörns Einarssonar.

Framsaga Sigurðar Árna Þórðrson á þriðjudagsfundi í Hallgrímskirkju – í fræðsluröðinni Talað um Guð. 

[1]Páll Þorleifsson: „Meistari Jón og postillan,” Vídalínspostilla, rits. Björn Sigfússon og Páll Þorleifsson. Reykjavík: Bókaútgáfa Kristjáns Friðrikssonar, 194, XX, XXII, XXIII. Vitnað er í þessa útgáfu postillunnar í þessu erindi. Þegar tölustafir birtast í meginmáli er vitnað til postillunnar og þá síðu eða síðna. Þessi tilvitnun er á blaðsíðu 273.

[2]Magnús Jónsson, Jón biskup Vídalín og postilla hans, Eimreiðin 1920, 5.-6. tölublað, 257.

[3]Páll Þorleifsson, Vídalínspostilla, XVIII-XXIX.

[4]Jón Helgason, Kristnisaga Íslands: Frá Öndverðu til Vorra Tíma, I-II. Reykjavík: Félagsprenstsmiðjan, 1925-27. 222ff.

[5]Sjá Arne Möller, Vidalin og hans postill: En biografisk og litterærkritisk undersögelse. Odense: Hempelske boghandel, 1929, 360ff.

[6]Möller, 377.

[7]Möller, 369.

[8]Möller 348ff, 373.

[9]Möller, 373, 377ff.

[10] Vídalínspostilla, 634. Um ögun Guðs og stjórn sjá 53, 164, 23, 359, 357, 616.

Greinar og pistlar

Jón Vídalín +300

Vídalínspostilla er höfuðrit íslenskrar kristni síðari alda við hlið Passíusálma Hallgríms Péturssonar. Passíusálmarnir eru enn lesnir og reglulega endurútgefnir. Vídalínspostilla var mikið lesin í nær tvær aldir. En postillan hefur í seinni tíð ekki notið sömu vinsælda og áður. Er Vídalínspostilla aðeins vitnisburður um liðinn tíma eða hefur hún enn eitthvað gildi? Þó viðmið fólks hafi breyst og málfar okkar sé annað er bókin klassík.

Þrjú hundruð ár eru liðin frá dauða Jóns Vídalíns sem samdi postilluna. Hann lést 30. ágúst árið 1720. Æfi Jóns Vídalíns var litrík. Þegar hann lauk námi frá Skálholtsskóla var um hann sagt að hann væri borinn til stórvirkja. Jón var stefnufastur maður mikilla hæfileika og varð einn mesti ræðusnillingur Íslendinga. Hann fæddist á Görðum á Álftanesi, naut góðrar bernsku en missti föður sinn aðeins ellefu ára. Þá tóku við þeytings- og mótunarár. Hann var sendur víða, austur á Fáskrúðsfjörð, undir Eyjafjöll, að Þingvöllum, vestur í Selárdal og út í Vestannaeyjar. Jón mannaðist og menntaðist og fór til náms í Kaupmannahöfn. Eftir að hafa flækst í hermennsku kom hann út til Íslands til prestsþjónustu og varð einn yngsti biskup Íslendinga. Postilluna gaf hann út og af miklum metnaði á árunum 1718-20. Ræðustef postillunnar tengjast reynslu höfundarins. Sjúkdómar herjuðu á landsmennn og stjórnvöld brugðust í mörgu. Jón sá á eftir báðum börnum sínum í dauðann. Vídalínspostilla speglar lífsreynslu hans, háska fólks og þjóðaraðstæður en líka þroskaðan mann sem hafði unnið heimavinnuna sína.

Og hvert er svo gildi Vídalínspostillu? Málfar hennar er safaríkt og inntakið lífshvetjandi. Jón Vídalín hafði gaman af stóryrðum og yddaði til að ná eyrum fólks. Orðfæri postillunnar hafði áhrif á málnotkun tilheyrenda og lifði meðal þjóðarinnar. Ræðurnar eru kraftmiklar, snjallar, vekjandi og skemmtilegar aflestar. Postillan gefur góða innsýn í hvernig klassísk fræði, guðfræði og heimspeki voru nýtt til fræðslu og mannræktar. Hún var því fræðandi og menntandi.

Jón Vídalín talaði ákveðið inn í aðstæður samtíðar sinnar. Hann lifði á upphafstíð einfaldskonungs og notaði konungshugmyndir til að túlka eðli og eigindir Guðs, heims og manna. Í postillunni er skýr siðfræði og hvernig siðferði menn eigi að temja sér. Jón Vídalín dró ekki af sér þegar hann benti á ábyrgð fólks gagnvart öðrum og samfélagi manna. Í postillunni er djúp samfélagsspeki, gagnrýni á vond stjórnvöld og Jesústefna um vernd hinna máttlitlu. Í prédikunum er talað með visku um lífshugmyndir manna. Jón Vídalín skipaði ekki fólki fyrir um trú þess eða afstöðu en hvatti til skynsamlegrar og einlægrar skoðunar fólks á stóru og smáu málunum. Postillan var hvetjandi og eflandi fremur en letjandi eða slævandi. Mannlýsingar Jóns Vídalíns eru litríkar og áhugaverðar. Jón Vídalín lýsti mönnum sjálfselskunnar með sjokkerandi nákvæmni. Hann hafði mikil áhrif á hvernig fólk hugsaði um sjálft sig og varnaði markalausri einstaklingshyggju.  

Gildi Vídalínspostillu? Klassísk verk hafa að geyma plús eða merkingarbónus sem er óháður tíma. Vídalínspostilla varpar upp möguleikum á góðu mannlífi og heilbrigðum sjálfsskilningi sem kallar einstaklinga og samfélag til ábyrgðar. Jón Vídalín lagði siðfræðilegan grunn að samúðarþjóðfélagi okkar Íslendinga. Lof sé honum og lesum postilluna.

Greinin birtist í Morgunblaðinu, 29. ágúst 2020, bls. 29.

Nánar um Jón Vídalíns og guðfræði Vídalínspostillu sjá: 

Majesty of God and the Limitation of the World – Vídalínspostilla

Greinar og pistlar

Majesty of God and the Limitation of the World – Vídalínspostilla

In addition to Hymns of the Passion, Vídalínspostilla has been a major force in the development of Christianity in post-Reformation Iceland. The author, Jón Vídalín, was born in 1666 into a family known for its interest in learning and education. His grandfather, Arngrímur the Learned, had gained international standing for his scholarly works. Vídalín’s father was educated in Holland and Denmark, studying medicine, the natural sciences, and theology. Vídalín started learning Latin at the age of seven. He finished his studies in Skálholtsskóli at the age of 16, which was quite unusual at the time. At the age of twenty he set off to study in Copenhagen with the striking reference ingenio ad magna nato. After finishing his studies and working on copying Icelandic manuscripts, he tried military service. Disillusioned, he was released from his duties in order to begin a pastoral career in Iceland. He was ordained bishop of Skálholt in 1698, at the age of 32. His career turned out to be extraordinarily difficult. The church was in a poor state. Judicial affairs were in disorder, tension reigned in the political arena, and this was also a time of natural catastrophes. But Vídalín became a great leader in his church. Jón Vídalín died in 1720.[1] 

Vídalínspostilla was first published in 1718. Over the next 80 years, it was reprinted ten times, which demonstrates its popularity. In the earlier part of the nineteenth century it was reprinted three times, but then not again until 1945. In the later part of the nineteenth century, other works took its place. The Postilla is a very large book and was enormously expensive. Nevertheless, an astonishing number of people did actually buy it.[2] Immediately after its first publication, the Postilla became the major religious book in Icelandic homes. It was read on Sundays and major religious holidays. It was also used to teach children to read. Around 1800 the book was in use in most homes in Iceland. Commentators differ onthe question of how long it was actually read. All agree that it was used everywhere Iceland until about 1800. Most argue that it was read until the middle of the nineteenth century when the works of Bishop Pjetur Pjetursson began to appear.[3] But even though some new books appeared, Vídalínspostilla was still in use in many homes in this century. Many of the older generation testify that they remember reading from „Vídalín.“

The book’s longevity may be explained in many ways. It was the first major collection of Icelandic sermons. In addition, it became a kind of a library to its owners, being read as a Bible because of its wealth of biblical quotations, and as a selection from world literature due to its many references and quotations. An finally, its language, one could even sayits thunderbolts, were so powerful, striking, and elegant that they made an impression on even the most disinterested reader. Ordinary people learned long passages by heart, many of them being of practical use in daily life.

Vídalínspostilla is not the first book of its kind in Iceland. Gísli Árnason’s collection of homilies had been published in 1684-85. But this was a translation of a Danish collection by Borchman.[4] Shortly before Vídalín arrived in Copenhagen to study, Gerner had published his collection of sermons. Vídalín realized the importance of such works, having seen the popularity and usefulness of Gerner’s book in Denmark. When Vídalín began to write his own, he did not translate any foreign works, producing an original work instead. Vídalín was a very scholarly man and highly educated.[5] His scholarship is apparent in the use of sources from Greek and Roman antiquity, and from Germany, England, and Scandinavia. He frequently quoted these sources and used memorable stories and expressions. Möller conducted a thorough study of the literary background of Vídalín’s Postilla and came to the conclusion that the so-called Harmonia by Martin Chemnitz, Polycarp Leyser, and Johan Gerhard had been an important influence on the sermons, especially theirinitial sections. Vídalín also made extensive use of Bernhard’s Rhetorik, Gerhard’s Meditations, and an English book by Richard Allestree, The Practice of Christian Graces: Or the whole Duty of Man. Vídalín was so impressed with this last book that he translated it into Icelandic.[6]

Vídalínspostilla is a collection of sermons following the structure of the church year. It has many themes, and the book, at first glance, seems rather puzzling. But upon closer scrutiny, its structure emerges as a carefully crafted network of thought. Once the dominant metaphor and its supporting metaphors have been identified, the themes and topics seem straightforward and logically developed in this work. Most issues, whether they concern the church, politics, or individual experience, seem to be rooted in the same fundamental theological construct. My contention is that the dominant model of Vídalínspostilla is the image of the majestic king. This model, through the interpretation of several supporting metaphors, governs the way in which the world and human existence are interpreted — in terms of a limit-emphasis. This thesis will be substantiated in the following sections.

Some interpretations

No commentator has been clear enough on the logical, fundamental structure of Vídalín’s thought. Several have written on Vídalín and some of his characteristic teachings. All of the theories have been to the point, but only in a limited sense. In 1920, Magnús Jónsson pointed out Vídalín’s subtle discussion of evil. But he forgot to connect it to the other dimensions of Vídalín’s thought, i.e., his notion of God and the battle against evil.[7] In the preface to the 1945-edition to the Postilla, Páll Þorleifsson gave a good account of several themes.[8] Common to these accounts is their lack of connection with the depth of meaning in the Postilla. Bishop Jón Helgason pointed out the polar structure of Vídalín’s thought, but did not develop the issues.[9] 

The scholar who has most thoroughly discussed Vídalín’s sermons is Arne Möller. He maintains that Vídalín’s notion of faith was primarily that of reason, and that the resulting trend throughout the book was an interpretation of law and the commandments and a kind of “catholic” clericalism and legalism.[10] Along with this reason-laden concept of faith, Möller contends that Vídalín developed a casuistic, nomistic conception of repentance with strict prescriptions for morality, church, and society. A human being should realize the exact magnitude of a sin and the right amount of contrition required. The whole discussion of the Eucharist, Möller maintains, is developed in a strongly clerical and overly moralistic sense. Möller concludes that the Postilla emphasizes nomism on all fronts and ultimately negates the real faith and true vitality of church.[11] Some of Möller’s insights have to be accepted. But his main theories have to be rejected. Möller sought the presuppositions for his theories in the literature Vídalín used, or might have used. By identifying the literary background of the Postilla, he assumed that he was able to delineate the major theological concerns in the work. He points out the relationship to On the Whole Duty of Man. From that work, Vídalín is said to have taken an emphasis on obedience and duty, i.e., moralism, nomism, and an intellectual concept of faith. Möller also denies Vídalín’s Lutheranism. He contends that the Postilla exemplifies Calvinism.[12] 

In the course of my interpretation, as set out below, the Lutheran overtones of the Postilla will be shown. In general,Möller is wrong due to his poor starting premise, and probably also because he misconstrued Lutheranism and had a rather simple hermeneutic aim. He thinks he is talking about Vídalínspostilla but he is in fact talking about something else. Even though he might be right about the influence of the vast amount of literature that he discusses, that influence does not substantiate his thesis. Only a thorough examination of Vídalín’s own text will expose the main tenets of the work. My emphasis on the dominant model and the supporting models will, I think, better disclose the salient features, the inner sense of the Postilla. These naturally explain why Christology, anthropology, ecclesiology, etc., did in fact undergothe development they did. The following analysis of Vídalínspostilla will disclose a totally different theology from the one analyzed by Möller. Gunnar Kristjánsson in the 1996 edition of Vídalínspostilla has added credence to my reading.[13]

Form and style

The sermons of Vídalínspostilla are in general thematic. Their composition is standardized. First, the text to be interpreted is given, followed by an Exordium, a delineation of the themes to be discussed and their introductory interpretation. Then the text is elaborated from a thematic point of view. The themes show a wide range. All kinds of issues in the life of the individual, both secular and religious, are discussed, along with the life of the church and society. Sometimes the theme or themes can be classified as dogmatic.

The style of the sermons is fundamentally determined by the main tenets of the Postilla’s theology. The language used accentuates the tension between heaven and earth. Irony is a common rhetorical tool that Vídalín uses with artistic skill. This makes the sermons exceedingly interesting if not actually awesome. With an unfailing insight into the grotesque humor of many Icelanders, Vídalín also manages to entertain. But the smiles and laughs often freeze when the true meaning explodes through the seemingly innocent humor. The rhetorical style aims at provoking a reaction. The distinctive feature of Vídalín’s irony is its departure from the normal life of the listener. With a few words and an unexpected twist, the preacher manages to expose the utter comedy of the issue at hand. In this twist, the gravity or even tragedy is disclosed with full force. The incarnation of Jesus Christ remains a frequent topic in Vídalín’s twists. Christ’s majestic position is contrasted with the listeners’ situation, and then with additional force the kenotic issues of Christ becoming human, viz. a worm, etc. is pressed upon the listeners without mercy. Human pride, or whatever else is discussed, becomes utterly comic and explodes from within. The listener’s foundation is undermined, resulting ininsecurity and a feeling that help is required. Some of the  most striking chapters are still well known to modern Icelanders and remain literary gems.[14] The language is vivid and fast-moving. Thunderbolts are hurled into listeners’ minds and even the most inveterate sinners are smoked out of their foxholes. In general, the language of the Postilla is wrought with metaphors. These are drawn from nature and society and are used with true analogical insight. The imagery of the Christian tradition is used wherever it fits, as is that of classical antiquity and the Bible. Wisdom, the cunningly crafted sentences and proverbs of the common folk of Iceland, has also found its way into the Postilla.

Good and evil at war

The context of the language used to describe God is the cosmic war between God and the devil. Vídalín does not elaborate a metaphysical dualism; he is rather a proponent of ethical dualism in the Lutheran sense. Satan is not defined from a neutral perspective but interpreted in light of attacks against the City of God (189, 231, 388, 624).[15] First and foremost, Satan attempts to deform the creation of God and thereby diminish God’s power. For the task of demolition, the devil uses armies of demons who are faithfully assisted by human allies made of flesh and blood. Satan constantly attempts to lure humans away from a healthy relationship with God. When he is successful, a human being instantly becomes the servant of Satan. The demonic relationship with Satan is primarily that of slave to master (231). The human world is the devil’s primary target. Every human being is constantly tempted. No shelter from these attacks can be found. The human lives at this borderline each day. Vídalín, like Luther, emphasizes the relationship of the inner being to God. In Vídalín’s sermon on the two Lords, this emphasis finds its clearest expression. Even though the human mind is wonderful, it cannot be divided. The devil will not submit to the Creator, and God cannot serve the world. In this conflict, the devil uses Mammon to subject the human mind to his service (624, 629). Those who submit to Mammon have through that act devoted themselves to a love-relationship with the devil and have fallen away from God.

Vídalín was well aware of the social dimensions and importance of ethics. He emphasizes that the individual, at all levels, is a social being and has social duties to fulfill. The aim of the individual’s life is to further the welfare of all, both as regards material and spiritual matters. The spiritual and material have to be related. No spiritual realm exists devoid of care for the material welfare of individuals and the society. Those who have turned their back on the suffering in thisworld have turned their backs on God (632). All things should be brought under this principle of service. Words and deeds should not offend, hurt or degrade. The humiliated or the “insignificant” are sensitive and easily led off the right path. With words and acts, the devil snares them, with the help of other uncaring human beings (653). All good gifts, whether spiritual, bodily, or material, are intended for the service of others. When these gifts are not properly used, the good creation of God is deformed and misused (701).

Vídalín is especially hard on those masters who have perfected their skills in the devil’s university. Masters, parents, and superiors make many evil claims, causing their subordinates to err. When the latter obey them, the result is despotism, perjury, violence, plundering, enticement, greed, retaliation, and disgrace to God’s word and life of the church. Parents are in the most precarious situation because of their responsibility for impressionable children (655). In addition to the fight for souls and society, the Devil attempts to devastate the life of the church. When the devil succeeds, the mind of a human being is divided, and that which is right and positive participation in the communal celebration of the church is despised. The result is general scorn for all who are needy. When word and sacrament do not have their proper place in the world, confusion will reign (646).

God will always fight evil in every way necessary. The striking image of the great general in battle is used in the Postilla. Vídalín even wonders why God has not slipped a hook into the devil’s nose (166) by now. God’s most massiveattack on the power of darkness was Christ. In line with old traditions of divine illusion, Vídalín maintains that God’s aim with the incarnation had been to lure Satan into the open. Jesus Christ would then become more glorious by comparison (344-45). Jesus overcame his opponent in the conflict, and in line with the old military order, the opponent was used to proclaim this victory to all. Christ suffered immensely to free the renegades (349). The Spirit of God acted and expelled the devil from the kingdom (388). But the destroyer continues his vandalism and is always close at hand. Vídalíntherefore preaches constant vigilance; we must never join the armies of evil (389).

Monarchical model and God

Because of the emphasis on cosmic conflict, the image of God and its supportive metaphors are primarily developed in that context. Vídalín stresses the dimensions of God’s fight. The dominant model is the monarchical metaphor of God the great king. Other metaphors are used as supporting models. First of all, God is described as a legislator. That metaphor naturally fits the monarchical model. God has a clear will and hence founds a constitutive order for the divine state. But in the course of events, God also reacts to differing situations in light of the aims and nature of His kingdom. Secondly, God functions as a judge. The judicial metaphor is another supportive model, entirely in line with and a natural continuation of the first two. As originator and legislator, God has the right and power to discriminate between differing processes, electing them both for humans and creation as a whole. The war between good and evil also makes it necessary for there to be an executive power or martial law. Thirdly, God is described as a general in battle. God, in line with ancient military strategy, is at the front of His army. But God still needs soldiers. Otherwise the state would be in jeopardy. In a way, Vídalín touches upon a sensitive issue but a very interesting one as well. The reality of the omnipotence of God is partly in the hands of human beings. This situation accentuates the cosmic importance of each and every person. The issue is not elaborated on metaphysically, but it is introduced within the pastoral and meditative intent of the sermons. The human being is told of his or her dignity over against God. Fourthly, a supportive model of the husband-master is developed in close connection with the other models. God the father is both merciful and kind to His creation. He shapes it as good and beautiful and provides conditions appropriate for its growth. The husband-master model primarily develops the issue of providence. God as a good king and father provides everything that the creation as a whole and individuals in particular will need for a good life. In spite of His majesty, discipline, and chastisement, God is patient and merciful.

The attributes of God’s majesty are quickly and easily identified in the Postilla. No major attempt is made to define God in a metaphysical or conceptual sense. In line with Luther, Vídalín knows of no neutral point of departure for developing speculative doctrines. No revelation of the wholeness of God has occurred that could allow comprehension by the limited human mind.  Only that which God wants to reveal is accessible, and then only from a partisan point of view. First and foremost, God is an icon to human being. That image will only be revealed in life through experience. Hence God-talk, theology, is brought forth from the fountain of divine action in life. Vídalín admittedly does not diverge from traditional doctrine. As one would expect, he adheres to a Trinitarian formulation. His Christology seems to be in line with Athanasius. But doctrinal elaborations are not the most important feature of Vídalín’s thought. He focuses on the dramatic development of the relationship between God and human beings. Vídalín’s imagery of God is rich and primarily serves to provoke praise of the high God among listeners. The images used are generally visual. God dwells in light (4, 273). God is depicted as a consuming, fearful, and glorious fire, burning in and around those whom God hates, even into the depths of hell. God also lives in a glorious brightness, which no one manages to reach by him- or herself (392, 414). God is purity dispelling contamination. Whatever is defiled, fire will engulf (392, 414). The depictions of the “height” of God are abundant. God dwells in a throne hall, which entails overview and presence everywhere (4, 200, 273). Related to height are classical attributes such as omnipotence, eternity, immeasurability, and omniscience. God is often depicted as a being of will, which decides upon the nature of creation. Because of the power and priority of God over everything else, God’s will presides. Human beings have the right to react and decide their own destiny. But their best choice is to will that what God wills.

God’s creation is good by definition. Hence, whatever belongs to creation is good (86, 134, 664). The entire creation, whether it is the sky, the earth, human flesh or the soul, is intended to be at peace with God. The priority of that peace should be maintained over peace among humans (57). The order of the world – parents, societal structure, etc. – is the gift of God, and should be revered accordingly (138). God’s power to give what is needed for a prosperous life will never diminish. Finally, God will lead faithful believers to a heavenly feast (134, 167, 260). Pointing out the absolute freedom of kings to legislate, Vídalín maintains that God may alter laws, and human beings are bound to obey. This freedom of God is founded upon the hidden will of God, which cannot be grasped by human understanding (213). As a sovereign governor, the legislative God knows best what human beings need. In words, God has revealed wisdom, will, justice, and goodness. In the mirror of the law, just behavior is disclosed, as well as the human condition (630). Because of human frailty, the law of God has been established for checking and judging sinners. The paramount problem for humans is theirlost case in God’s court (51). God’s only aim is human repentance and humility, with the welfare it brings.

Due to God’s righteous attributes and the sinfulness of human beings, the case is God’s to make (4, 52). As a judge,God has the double aim of attending to human welfare and securing the victory of good over evil (52). No certainty exists concerning the sentence, because God may even spit humans out of God’s mouth (4). Finally, everything is based on the decision of the Almighty God. God harvests and elects men, though they have the right to choose their own way. But as it turns out, that choice is not a real choice, since everyone sins due to human frailty. The sentence of God is an awful reality, described in the strongest terms by Vídalín, and magnified by stressing the tension of God’s majesty and the lowliness of human beings. When God distributes the conditions of life among men, no one can rightly grumble. All gifts are true presents, given even to criminals who do not deserve anything at all. The role of the judge has two dimensions. One concerns the absolute majesty of God, with a stress on the sentence of guilt. The other concerns mercy. A judge may,through compassion, forgive crimes. Thus the supportive model of the judge is conditioned by the monarchic root metaphor, the model of the father, and also that of the general. God at war wants his supporters to be with him. He disciplines and leads but is also merciful and helpful.

Since the original fall, God’s main concern has been that of keeping evil in check at all levels. The traits of the military general do indeed color the image of God in the Postilla. As a general and strategist, God is intent on controlling the lives of human beings, testing them and disciplining them in the battle in which they are engaged. God may allow Christians to be oppressed at times, although it is clear that Vídalín denies that God allows them to be totally oppressed (189). The Christian must participate in the struggle and must do so first and foremost by seeking the protection of God. The greatest strategic plan God has made concerns Jesus’ incarnation. God outperforms the devil through Christ’s work and wins victory (244-45). In a similar sense, human beings have to serve the kingdom of God by supporting God’s purposes. And their support is truly important in securing the defeat of evil (628).

The father metaphor is partly conditioned by the other models. In light of the notion of judge and king, the image of the father appears in the strict sense of a pedagogical father who does not tolerate disobedience and disorder in human lives. God rears with strictness, engenders fear, punishes and controls with a firm hand. God sends hardship, adversity, and temptation, but also prosperity for the sake of developing of maturity (164, 168, 223-4, 359, 364, 604, 616). This strong guidance encompasses all dimensions of creaturely existence: spirit, flesh, society, history, and nature (9, 23, 35, 53, 164, 616, 357). What God wants is welfare, particularly for the underdogs in human society. For these, God takes special care (634). Vídalín strongly emphasizes the tender aspects of fatherhood: care, tolerance, patience and general goodness (23, 53, 364). To all the gifts of God, whether they be hardship or tenderness, the human should respond with trust (364).

Jesus Christ at war against evil

This Christology is strongly colored by the teleology of the strategic context. The Son of God accepted the burdens of becoming flesh – hunger, thirst, nakedness, exile, scorn, etc. – not only in order to reveal the power of God, but also to conquer the power of Satan. The image of Jesus Christ in Vídalínspostilla supports my contention of the metaphorical cluster around God. The Christ-model seems to support the dominant, monarchical model. Jesus, in the Postilla, is primarily portrayed as engaged in war. In line with kenotic Christology, the incarnated Christ remains chiefly a dramatic being, on the road from glory, through acres of suffering in the world. He descends into hell to wage war, is resurrected, and ascends to heaven again for re-crowning. The whole drama of Christ is proclaimed as fundamental to the status and prospects of the world, and thus for the possibility of human life.

Because of Vídalín’s emphasis on God’s majesty it does not come as a surprise that Jesus is depicted as the immortal king of glory (145). But he wanted to suffer for the sake of the human world. This theme of choice has its counterpart in Hymns of the Passion. There is no split in the Trinitarian theology, but the emphasis is on Christ’s own choice. He was not an adopted son sent for a special mission. God God-self was engaged. This Vídalín interprets in light of Christ’s love, not as a necessary part of the heavenly planning. He denies that Christ’s power would have been any less if he had not become flesh, and human beings had suffered eternally. The fundamental motive for the incarnation is Christ’s own righteousness, mercy, and even his “love-sickness” (284, 350). In general the incarnation is introduced with imagery that is connected with the difference between heaven and the world, i.e., light and darkness. This is understandably clearest in the sermons for Christmas (49ff.) Jesus’ journey from heaven to earth is dramatically described in order to magnify the contrast between the two poles of the eternal and the worldly.

Vídalín sees the incarnation in light of the cosmic battle. Jesus Christ constantly battles, even in the depths of hell (244-45). Through pain, the divine-human Jesus Christ clears the way to the throne. In hell, he recaptured the exiled world of human beings and expelled the enemy, then returned to the throne of God (670). Secondly, Jesus participates in that which human beings have to experience, particularly their suffering. He took upon himself all diseases and mutilation so completely that he was on the cross, according to Vídalín’s metaphor, in the image of a worm. In the Postilla, that image, with its reference to the Genesis-account, concerns an interpretation of lowliness (150, 234). Thirdly, Christ saved the human race from bondage to sin and death. On this issue Vídalín is classical in his interpretation and use of metaphors. He speaks of payment, death as sacrifice, forensic issues, ransom, guilt, and freedom over against a king. The context for most of the soteriological discussion is the face-to-face confrontation with the monarch, legislator, judge, and general of the martial court. Christ truly solves the problem, fulfills justice, takes the sentence upon himself and also breaks down the powers of evil. In all of this, the image of Christ is in direct relationship with and simultaneously supports the dominant and supportive models of God (111, 150, 188, 244ff. 284, 287, 307, 314, 326ff., 338, 346ff., 364, 670, 672, 676).

For Vídalín, the context of the incarnation is the teleological scheme of God’s war against evil. God planned that the sun of righteousness should appear in the world at the break of dawn, in the birth of Christ (306). But then the sun went under, only to reappear at Easter. Subsequently it will never disappear again. All this had to happen. The strategic plan is very clear during the whole process. Vídalín maintains that Christ had to suffer, and that Easter had to happen in the way it did (314). The sermon for Easter is striking in that it does not concentrate so much on joy over the dying of death and the vitality of life. There is a greater emphasis on the fact that justice has triumphed. Ultimately and surprisingly, the message of Easter is transformed into a call to repentance (305ff). From the perspective of a successful strategy the conclusion, in the form of human repentance, is understandable. The king has made the supreme sacrifice and proven his competence in doing what was necessary. His subordinates naturally react by hailing his victory and showing contrition. The theme of victory remains fundamental to Vídalín’s interpretation.[16] 

When he returns to glory, Christ is different than He was before. He returns with the experience of human life in the flesh. Hence, in heaven, Jesus advocates the human cause before the Father (307, 327, 405ff., 627, 670). On the other hand, Jesus Christ also has a role toward human beings in and through the church. Jesus heads this community through the word and the sacraments, which are meant to be channels of grace for everyone (216, 280, 286). In the actual life of the Christian, Jesus Christ becomes not only the power of life, but also the prototype, hence the imitatione Christi. Jesus Christ walked the via dolorosa with humility. This is also the true virtue of the Christian. Jesus was humiliated himself; hence humility toward our fellow humans should be our approach. He was humble. We should also be humble, because in addition to His example, He has ordered us to be so (284). Jesus has not ordered us to recreate the world or perform miracles, but to show obedience and gentleness (286). In all this, the Christian should follow Christ and carry the cross (124, 281, 284, 304ff., 316). Although Jesus Christ has undergone the entire human experience, He is different on one point. He was without sin and never had cause for remorse. Human beings are sinners and have to repent to gain the right to communion with God.

There are several sides to the Christological elaboration in the Vídalínspostilla. The royal side is the primary one. But the king also suffers. That issue is closely related to the suffering king of Hallgrímur’s Hymns of the Passion. Both Vídalín and Hallgrímur relate that aspect of Christ to His humanness. Human beings are characterized by lowliness. By submitting to the yoke, Christ manages to break a trail for all who will follow Him.

“You, king of the whole world, who lives in light, to whom no one may approach. We, sinful worms, on this blessed moment, crawl out of our dust unto the threshold of your feet to seek peace with your divine majesty, whom we have insulted from our early childhood. But, alas, o Lord. We are so exhausted under the yoke of sins, that when we lust for being elevated to thy heights our own filth drags us down again” (4).

This first section of the prayer Vídalín used prior to his sermons is a strikingly clear and poignant example of the theology of the Postilla. After the fall, there is a deep chasm between God and the human world due to sin. All limitation and defilement has its point of comparison in the majesty of God. The power of the king is the limit of the world, the human world included. The limit of human existence is grounded in the majesty of God. The divine monarch demands absolute service. Any breach of that service amounts to treason. In Hymns of the Passion, the suffering king became the point of departure for the notion of being human. But Vídalín interprets being human in light of the majestic model with its supportive cluster of models. Penetrating beyond the surface, one is struck by the Lutheran emphasis on coram Deo in Vídalín’s thought. The whole speech is a theological elaboration, not an empirical description of the structure of the world apart from God. Nothing can be defined in the world apart from the theocentric vantage point. There is an either/or dimension to the faith of each human being. On is either devoted to God or to Satan. If one has a healthy relationship to God, all the fruits of the true Christian life will follow: faith, worship, love, and care for all who suffer and need support. But if the human being departs from that faithful relationship, the creation is worshiped with demonic consequences at all levels, both in individual and social life. The calling of the Christian is to be a pathway for the creative power of God for the welfare of all, especially the needy.

God the Spirit

Pneumatology is a minor issue in Vídalínspostilla. Vídalín certainly adheres to the Trinitarian formula, but his discussion does not leave much space for the Spirit, except for the prayers to God the Spirit in the exordium and the prayer after each sermon. First of all, the Postilla is not a work of systematic theology. Secondly, there are issues to be discussed in the sermons. There were indeed pressing topics that were of immediate importance, so there was no time left for covering the whole range of theology. In spite of the slight attention paid to pneumatology, one can point out some issues. The theology of history to which Vídalín seems to adhere is colored by a kenotic approach. Evil seems to exile the Spirit from the human world and the whole of creation. But this happens in stages. On an individual level, the Spirit is given in baptism and is close at hand and constantly helps, not least in times of tribulation. Secondly, the Spirit’s role as an advocate in heaven for the human cause is given more emphasis. Thirdly, the Spirit fights all the enemies of God (380). On Pentecost, the Spirit accomplished a great work, convincing the world of the righteousness of Jesus Christ (386). Since then the Spirit works to expel demons from the world. Nevertheless, readers are told more about the cunning natureof evil than they are about the way the Spirit works. But the nature of the Spirit’s work in individual lives is clear. It gives knowledge of sin in order to promote repentance; knowledge of Christ’s righteousness, so that we can turn to him seeking forgiveness;  and a certainty that the devil’s sentence has been made public so that we may renounce him and his ways. If one makes sin a habit, the Spirit is expelled to a large extent. In opposition to the Spirit, the individual is truly lost (685,701).

For God and the neighbor

Vídalín’s “anthropology” leans neither toward a subtle aesthetic nor a mystical elaboration. Simply put, the life of a human being has to be lived in the world of men. The main focus is on the communal aspects of the human calling. The individual is destined for life with others. The Christian, filled with the Spirit, is a being who relates to others. Vídalín does not advocate a works-righteousness ethic. Given the image of God in battle and the Lutheran coram Deo-tradition, the primary intention is to relate faith to ethics. God demands that faith lead to works to benefit the creation. The strong underlying force in the whole book is “show me your faith through your works.” Based on that foundation, Vídalín gives all of his advice and his orders concerning issues of participation in the church, work at home, and all civil obligations. Faith ultimately encompasses the entire world. If he enjoys a true relationship with God, a Christian can never,  escape the world in which he or she is placed. This emphasis is totally Lutheran. One may talk of a methodism in the Postilla, but the underlying theological emphases have to be born in mind. Ethics, from Vídalín’s perspective, are a natural aspect  of faith. The habitus of the Christian is holistic in this type of theology.

The majesty of God entails a clear hierarchy of all issues. Everything is subject to the service of God: talents, wealth, gifts, society, one’s very self. Everything should serve the fight against evil. If the human being seeks to use the gifts of God for his or her own individual purposes, idolatry is the direct consequence. At that moment, the creation is worshiped,instead of the Creator. That means an evil downfall for a human being.  The result will be insensitivity and forgetfulness toward that which is good and beautiful in the world. In daily life, individuals are especially prone to forget who has giventhem everything. Some of the most powerful passages in the Vídalínspostilla focus on the bustle of everyday existence, forgetfulness of God, and the complicated web of the resulting evil toward one’s neighbor. Into this world, the preacher shoots his fireballs of the divine message. He sharpens the tension between the poles of heaven and earth as strongly as possible. With the help of irony, he portrays the absolute difference between glory and lowliness, between the creative God and incurvated humans. Indeed the human race in the Postilla appears as an laughable flock, fit to be scorned for its stupidity. But through this image of a banal circus, one is struck by an awareness of tragedy. The parade of fun is suddenly transformed into a march toward the grave. Human efforts are ridiculous and have the most serious consequences. The wrath of God will inevitably destroy this entire theatrical world and all of its actors. One begins to sense humanity’s precarious situation in this world. It is teetering at the edge of a demonic abyss. Its only hope is keeping its umbilical cord intact. Because of the monarchic image of God, Vídalín describes the primary sin of humanity as pride. Sin as pride implies a notion of limitation. As a created being, man is placed within a circle that cannot be broken. Attempts to transcend these limits will result in a fall. This fall is interpreted spatially. The sin involved is trying to place oneself higher in the hierarchy of values than one is entitled to.

Metaphors, limits and human life

In the following section, the anthropological delineations that result from these models of God will be addressed. Liminal features are their main characteristic. First, the metaphors concerning human beings will be discussed. Then the limit of body and spirit will be reviewed, as well as the totus homo features in the Postilla. The last section will deal with the Christian life.

The metaphors used to interpret human beings give a sense of limitation. Their existence is transient, they are born naked and ultimately disappear without taking anything at all with them. Between birth and death is a short span of life, fraught with inconsistency and insecurity. Finitude is its sharpest characteristic. Furthermore, spatial features — that which is low and high — are prominent. A human being does not reach any great height, he lies on the ground, and os more likely to crawl than walk. The language is more theological than empirical. The limitation depicted is eschatological rather than spatio-temporal. Human beings are always discussed from a divine, majestic perspective, as regards their relationship with God.

Metaphors of human diminution are dust, earthen clay, earth, and ash (227, 393, 524). What is striking in the Postillais the strong emphasis on movement. Static images are not used at all. Dynamism prevails. Vídalín normally speaks of earth and ash as blowing here and there. The human being is primarily interpreted from that perspective. The winds of good fortune and prosperity carry one in a that way engenders false security, which results in pride. Man is easilydeceived. Vídalín reacts forcefully to this, launching metaphors like the worm, creatures crawling upon the surface of the earth, creatures in the earth that do not maintain an erect position, all transient beings who primarily cultivate their love of the dust. This motif invokes the Genesis serpent, with the connotations of the relationship man has with the worm, i.e. a part of creation over which human beings should maintain a superior position. Sin, the net in which humanity has been caught, pulls everyone down to the ground. Instead of worshipping God, human beings have devoted themselves to worshipping the creation. The lowly position of the whole race is in itself an image of a prayer of supplication to God. The only appropriate form in which to appear at the divine throne is that of the crawling worm-renegade. The tension created by these images is as strong as metaphorical language allows (4, 159, 357, 388, 616, 624). In addition, Vídalín throws out other striking images. He tells us that humans are like dead dogs, a truly non-literal metaphor (273)! 

Several other metaphors are used, each drawn from nature. The human being is steam (19, 692), a bubble in water (122, 282, 300, 396, 616, 624), a clay vessel (227), smoke (296), a flower, straw or seed (122, 282, 392, 171). The common characteristic of these metaphors is brevity, changeability, and transience. The human being rises like steam but soon disappears. The same applies to smoke. In the wind of life, it whirls upward, like dust or ash, and then falls down again. A human being is fragile like pottery and decays like the flower of the field. When God raises a wind, the blossomis blown away. The metaphor of the bubble is atypical for Icelandic literature, but it naturally registers in the meaning-horizons of Icelanders. The falls and rapids of Iceland’s innumerable rivers and brooks are bright and white. Anyone who has sat and gazed at a waterfall for a while, something all Icelanders have done, will grasp the meaning. The bubbles suddenly appear, shoot toward the surface, and then disappear in an instant, as others take their place. This striking gaiety lasts only seconds. There are some references to baptism in Vídalín’s discussion of water. The human being lives from and out of the baptismal blessing. As soon as the water-context is dismissed, life is lost. Vídalín also speaks provocatively of nations as drops of water in the eye of God (694), directing thought toward bodily meditation.

Other elements in nature are also used as metaphors. The human being is depicted as a flickering fire. The same applies to this metaphor as to the preceding ones. At great speed, fire reaches joyfully toward the sky, enduring for only a brief moment before it suddenly disappears (123). But in Iceland fire also speaks of the destruction caused by volcanoes. Hence we are told that our dwellings are like hay barns. Fire will strike and rapidly destroy everything (123). Then Vídalín tells us that God has lumped human beings together like cheese (430). The irony is clear with this emphasis on transience. One should be aware of the use of the elements: earth, fire, water, and air, to describe human beings. The children of the earth and the whole of creation are afflicted with the same traits and can expect the same destiny. Vídalín’s thought does not allow any anthropocentrism at the expense of other parts of God’s creation.

All gifts of life may be used either for good or evil. When used for evil the consequences are necessarily demonic. Vídalín wants everyone to remember this. Tools, qualities, and everything else God has given should therefore be placed in their proper context, the context of God, remembering what the human being is. Vídalín’s aim is to encourage the realization that what has been considered stable is not at all trustworthy. Eyes often become blind, particularly during prosperous periods (170, 227). Ears hear wrongly (170). The mouth is not rightly used to serve the cause of justice and goodness in the world (174). that which seemingly clothes the human body with beauty will decay (283, 365, 616). Mental powers will prove weak. Human beings do not know the future (41), themselves (86), the end of time (180, 283), or the love of God (287, 616, 624). The human will is limited (167). Conscience is weak (19). Man’s power will not hold up under the yoke of frailty and sin (41, 50). Virtues and human qualities will fail (283). Friends, masters and wealth will, upon closer look, not provide any security (684). The body is naked at birth, and the human being screams at the outset as if it dreaded its life (123, 301). Like a twentieth century existentialist, Vídalín writes that the human being is thrown into the world like a corpse (394). He points out that a human being is limited, both physically and spiritually. Stripped of all dignity and shelter, a human being will depart from this world. Mankind is crushed (4, 5) at the core. Not only is the world a vale of tears, and a clay carousal (123, 273), there are also ever-present threats to life (164). Remembering his nationality, Vídalín occasionally reminds his listeners that Icelanders live at the edge of the world, the outermost ocean(53, 498). Even time imposes limits, both as regards the past and the future (327).

The purpose of pointing out the limitations of everything around us is to disclose what it is that serves human beingswell. Due to their limitations, they needs something that holds: a divine foundation and guidance. That foundation is not meant only for this life but for eternal life as well. God is interpreted as the limit of, and the human being and the world as limited to. Hence the discussion of Vídalínspostilla can be theologically interpreted. Finally one should be aware of the way the book emphasizes that the problem described is not God’s problem but that of mankind.

Vídalín’s anthropology is clearly inspired by Luther’s totus homo anthropology. The human being is either free or enslaved, either just in the face of God or bound by the evil worship of the creation. One’s inner being affects one’s chances of hoping or persevering. Vídalín does not make a detailed list of sins and the order in which they will appear as one falls from the grace of God. He describes them as appearing in a bundle in the life of the sinner. Faithlessness will necessarily manifest itself in an immoral life. Pride will affect a person’s relationship with his neighbor, with his own self, and with material goods. Vídalín points out that when pride has been ingrained in the soul, reason will be disfigured, with evil consequences for everything around the individual(46). With overbearing pride, a human being will overstep his or her given position in life in both a spiritual and social sense. The spiritual consequence will be a wrong approach to one’s position in life. Gratitude will disappear and the awareness of the divine origin of the world will wither away (619). The self will be glorified at the expense of someone else. Robbery and disregard for the dignity of others will follow (125, 143, 619). Mammon will reign (144, 284).

Lips are defiled by cursing one’s neighbor (394, 600) when they are used to gossip, for “multi-talk” instead of honoring and strengthening others (606). Reason is used for one’s own welfare; talents are used for inquiring only about human trespasses (12, 23, 228, 231). Humans are cross-eyed, envious of the wealth of others (12, 166, 360). They do not accept God’s distribution of goods. They become filled with pride and hostility and lack gratitude (125, 137, 170, 283, 284, 297, 524, 616, 718). In short, God will not be revered as the true leader and source of life. Boundaries defined by God will be overstepped. Transgressing these boundaries will affect the whole existence of all members of the human race. At all levels, human beings will become myopic, not accepting the right of God to punish and test.

Evil actions and missing the mark affect the two main institutions of humanity: society and the church. In the church,admonishments are not heeded. Sleep prevails (174, 603). Coupled with this sleep is deafness to the screams of those suffering, resulting in a paralyzed and unjust society (603, 605). Justice is distorted in the courts, when vacant positions of power are filled, and in allowing loopholes for the real criminals (101, 174, 178, 182). Wages are not fairly distributed, etc. (101). Faith in God and service to one’s neighbor cannot be separated in Vídalín’s thought (602). All kinds of transgressions are listed in the Postilla, all simultaneously interpreted as sins against God. Hands, feet, eyes, and ears are not used for honoring God and serving society, but rather for a diabolic restructuring of society (360, 700).

Three aspects of service to God

“I know that one donkey can never becomes a horse even if a golden saddle is placed on its back. Similarly, a fool never becomes wise, no matter how he is painted on the outside”(478). Vídalín proclaimed that faithful service to the king of heaven can never be anything but a wholehearted approach by both the inner being and the outer being. To reach that relationship to God, one has to accept limitation, repent, and submit to God. The process of repentance and service to God has, in Vídalín’s description, three dimensions.

The relationship to God has to be constantly reevaluated. Unfaithfulness is an insult to God. Even minor sins are disgusting, because human beings might seem to be toying with an offense (291). Vídalín reminds us that God is very strict. Not only does he demand the payment of large sums, he also demands compensation to the last penny. A service is demanded that is holistic in terms of the inner being (4, 372). Fearing God is not enough, meditation on fatherly love, wisdom, and the patience of God have to be added. Fear is the father of faith, but love is its mother (186). Repentance has to be a daily task. The will has to be put to work. A totally new existence has to be desired if repentance is to be real. Remorse has to be steaming hot and cannot be postponed (310, 372-4, 622f, 677). Because of the immensity of the sin,the penalty is in direct proportion to it. Remorse therefore entails a ceaseless hatred of sin (315, 372, 451, 703). Contrition means a crushed spirit and a humble heart (4, 383). Remorse means total submission to the service of God and one’s neighbor (677f.).

The second dimension of service consists in renouncing all the lords of the world, i.e., pride and its resulting devastation of others. Humility and love should be shown to God and one’s neighbor (186, 189, 284, 280). The prototype for the process of changing from evil to good ways is Jesus Christ. In this, Vídalín renews the emphasis of Hymns of the Passion on the worldly service of the suffering Christ that discloses true human nature before God and world: “Call me thy slave, Thine underling.” In faith one should obey the orders of God. Because of God’s might and goodness, anything God might mete out should be interpreted as serving a good purpose. God will give strength in times of tribulation. God will never leave anyone totally helpless in his or her difficulties (9, 189, 222-3). Suffering therefore serves a good purpose, i.e., that of strengthening the human being for the battle against evil. Since all are destined to participate in God’s fight, one has to accept preparation for this service. Vídalín maintains that good qualities are strengthened only through difficulties. In suffering one will learn to see what is really good and what is really bad. Because God is king, general, father, and judge, God will have the necessary insight into what is necessary for each individual’s maturity. A human being should constantly keep in mind that God sends suffering for the sake of that which is good (56, 359f. 363f, 487, 714, 727). Human service is service in obedience. Mind and body will learn to know their limits and learn not to transcend them. One will  also learn not to grumble or despair.

Thirdly, Christian service always aims at the welfare of society. Faith without works is dead. Vídalín even talks of faith as always being action (4, 167, 191, 599, 608). Service is devoted primarily to those in distress: widows, the poor, the hungry, the enslaved, the innocent, and all those who do not have a worldly protector. Service to these persons is first of all an action of gratitude toward God, but it is also obedience to God’s orders. One should always remember that everything and everyone is redeemed at the high price of Jesus’ blood. But ultimately, one’s service will be tested at the judgment at the end of time. By working for the welfare of others, one works for one’s own ultimate welfare (4, 167, 197, 200, 316, 331, 610, 695).

This article was published in Limits and Life: Meaning and Metaphors in Religious Language of Iceland. New York, Peter Lang, 2012, p. 83-102.

[1] Jón Vídalín, the author, will be referred to as Vídalín. In Iceland he is either referred to as „Meistari Jón,“ to distinguish him from all the Jóns in Iceland, or simply as Vídalín. Although several Vídalíns play important roles in Icelandic history, Vídalín in the Icelandic context means Jón Vídalín. On Vídalínspostilla see Arne Möller, Vídalínspostilla (Köbenhavn: Gyldendalske Boghandel, 1928) and Gunnar Kristjánsson, “Inngangur” in Vídalínspostilla: Hússpostilla eður einfaldar predikanir yfir öll hátíða- og sunnudagaguðspjöll árið um kring (Reykjavík: Mál og Menning, 1995).Early 20th century scholars interpreted Vídalínspostilla  from the perspective of his biography. See Arne Möller, Vídalínspostilla (Köbenhavn, Gyldendalske Boghandel, 1922). Its themes address the issues of his time, with heavy emphasis on ethical improvement, the need for repentance, order in society, and obedience to the church.

[2] One has to bear in mind the difficult times and high death rate. Icelanders numbered 30,000-50,000 during that period. See Nordal, Hallgrímur Pétursson, 61, and Páll Þorleifsson, „Meistari Jón og Postillan“ Vídalínspostilla, ed. Páll Þorleifsson and Björn Sigfússon (Reykjavík: Bókaútgáfa Kristjáns Friðrikssonar, 1945), XVI.

[3] See Möller, ibid., 380. See also Páll Þorleifsson, ibid., XXVII, Magnús Gíslason, ibid., 117. Jónas Jónsson, ibid., 358. Matthías Jochumsson, Bréf, 2.

[4] Möller, ibid., 296.

[5] Möller, ibid., 191.

[6] Möller, ibid., 197ff, 201ff and 238-253.

[7] See also Möller, Vídalínspostilla  (Köbenhavn: Gyldendalske Boghandel, 1928), 373.

[8] See Þorleifsson, „Meistari Jón og Postillan“ in Vídalínspostilla, XXff.

[9] See Jón Helgason, Kristnisaga Íslands: Frá Öndverðu til Vorra Tíma, II (Reykjavík: Félagsprentsmiðja, 1927), 222ff.

[10] See Möller, ibid., 360ff.

[11] See Möller, ibid., 350-77. On praxis pietatis, see ibid., 356ff., on the knowledge of the self, see ibid., 377, on the church, see ibid.,. 369.

[12] See Möller, ibid., 377.

[13] Gunnar Kristjánsson, “Inngangur – Vídalínspostilla og höfundur hennar,” Vídalínspostilla (Reykjavík: Mál og Menning, Bókmenntafræðistofnun Háskóla Íslands, 1995), li-lxii.

[14] The so-called „wrath reading“ is probably the best known, Vídalínspostilla, 112ff.

[15] Quotations will be both in the main body of the text and in footnotes. The references will be bracketed, and numbers refer to the pagination of the 1945-edition.

[16] On the relation of teleology to the monarchical model in the history of theology, see Edward Farley, Ecclesial Reflection: The Anatomy of Theological Method  (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982), 29ff., 84ff., and 154ff.

 

 

 

 

 

Greinar og pistlar

Icelandic culture and religion – tradition applied

 

Náttúra, kraftur og fólkIn the latest issue of the New Yorker, on November 9, 2015, there is an interesting article on rescue teams in Iceland. Actually the system is unique in the world. Iceland has no army, and because police and the coast guard are underfunded and spread thin, Icelanders have developed a non-governmental task force for helping people in distress due to volcanic eruptions, avalanches, earthquakes, ocean gales, sandstorms, glacier bursts, and awful blizzards in both summer and winter. The non-governmental volunteer movement has almost ten thousand members in all, with four thousand of them on “callout-duty.” Every town or community has a team. It is no scout group of youngsters but rather well trained, well equipped, self-funded and self-organizing groups of people on standby: 3% of the nation are members – volunteers!

Forces of nature have not only had an impact on people, they have also given birth to a culture with a view of the world and strategies for ways to live — and also how to die. The reporter from the New Yorker did a fine job describing the truck-driving guardian angels but didn’t understand or explain the underlying reasons. I think there are definite cultural and historical reasons for the formation of these teams. A look at the history of Icelandic culture has convinced me that the reasons are cultural, and more specifically religious-ethical. The type of Christianity practiced and preached in the country helped mold a society of togetherness and care for neighbors in need.

The rescue teams have been and are groups that confront the powers of nature. They have their litanies, their scriptures and services. Even though they have no religious affiliation, and the religious views of the members are highly diverse, they function in a religious style and on the foundation of a religious culture. In rescuing people, they perform the task of the Good Samaritan. In this they continue a strong ethical tradition in Iceland. Icelanders have in all ages lived out the theology of God caring for human beings, sensing that there is grace in nature – and that there is also a loving, divine presence in the midst of crises.

Nature and the struggle

First, a few words about the harsh nature of the country and the art and strategies of survival in Iceland. A comparison between Norway and Iceland is enlightening, illustrating how grim the struggle was in Iceland over the centuries. By the end of the 11th century, the Norwegian population came to roughly 250 thousand people. At the same time, some 70 thousand Icelanders lived on this island. The ratio was “more than 1 Icelander to 4 Norwegians.” Both nations had their ups and downs over the next 600 years. Shortly after 1800 the Norwegian population was up to 883 thousand, whereas Icelanders were down to 47 thousand. What happened? Did some Icelanders leave, looking for a milder climate, emigrating to the Canary Islands, Brazil or North America? No, they were down from 70 thousand to 47 thousand due to catastrophes in nature. By 1800 the ratio was 1 Icelander to 17 Norwegians. This simple comparison sheds some light on the difficulties of survival. What strategies for survival were formed on this Mission Impossible. How did this struggle shape or mold religion?

Religious classics and literature

I would like to draw attention to two classics in the Icelandic tradition and point out their basic dimensions for liturgical inspiration and application. These are Hymns of the Passion and Vídalínspostilla.

Icelanders have been a people of letters. Both ordinary and educated people put events and emotions into words and text. Poverty did not prevent them from writing. Both women and men shaped their feelings, both joy and grief, into poetry which was memorized, and some of it was written down. Some Icelandic pastors were productive and took pride in publishing their theology, sermons and meditations. This religious literature was not tied to the church; it was put to use in households all over the country. It was almost “the social media” of those times.

Collections of sermons were not only meant for “simple” pastors but also for reading in the homes of those who did not manage to attend church on Sundays. The collection of sermons by Bishop Jón Vídalín, Vídalínspostilla, published in the early part of the 18th century, was exceptionally important and had a lasting impact on discourse about issues of faith and society, the meaning of human life and of nature, and how to behave and act. Hymns of the Passion, first published in late 17th century, were learned by heart by many people from 1700 and well into the 20th century.

An astonishing amount of religious literature was printed in Iceland in the 19th and 20th centuries. There was a joke in Iceland that the number of religious books published in the country was enough to pave the road all the way to the pope in Rome, and publishing religious books was the most lucrative part of Icelandic publishers’ trade. They may have made money on religion in the past, but that has now come to a complete stop. Very few books of sermons, meditations or religious poetry have been published in Iceland for decades.

Icelandic Christianity

What are the characteristics of Icelandic Christianity? Of course Icelanders have always tried to import the best from all trends, fads and fashions abroad. Luther’s dramatic theology was a winner for some time. Baroque artistry won over some poets in the 17th and 18th centuries. Rationalism, romanticism and materialism had their protagonists in 18th and 19th centuries. In religion, classical theology was the main web into which all kinds of novelties and idiosyncrasies were woven or incorporated. But fundamental of course were the actual life-experiences of people in the country.

A striking aspect of Icelandic theology is the prominent, positive and important role that nature has played. The religious texts of this tradition deal primarily with what might be called limit or liminal issues, e.g. death, finitude, transience, threats to life, the futility of securing one’s own existence, helplessness, etc. And in order to explain and make the experiences of human life and development in the surrounding world intelligible, the writers of the past used metaphors and examples from nature. The human habitat was nature in her manifold forms. The country’s culture was a liminal culture, devising meaning, understanding and strategies for survival in harsh, unpredictable and dramatic nature. Nature was not only a threatening killer; it also proved to be a caring and nurturing mother, giving life to all creation – by God´s grace.

A common characteristic of the whole tradition of post-Reformation Icelandic preaching and theologizing is contextualization: the aim of correlating the Christian message to the situation and needs of the times. In Hymns of the Passion the portrait of Jesus Christ symbolized and thematicized people’s struggles, suffering, death and hope in such a way that the poems illuminated the meaning of human life and the nature of the world.

The same aim at correlation is also found in Vídlínspostilla. The penetrating discussion of human nature, social issues, the church, and options in human life struck Icelanders in a meaningful way, and not only gave real nourishment to the soul but also spoke theologically to the entire spectrum of life in this world.

Hymns of the Passion

The Hymns of the Passion had a lasting impact in Iceland for at least two centuries, from 1700 to 1900, because of the image of the suffering Jesus Christ depicted in them. The Jesus-figure, which was elegantly portrayed, grasped, united and expressed latent sentiments among Icelanders. Keeping in mind the ever-present threat of natural catastrophes, it comes as no surprise that it is precisely the most tragic moments of Jesus Christ’s career that stirred Icelanders. His struggle symbolized Icelandic suffering.

In Hymns of Passion  Icelanders were told that the hidden secret of the world is that love – not death – is the heartbeat of life, that light will overcome darkness, that warmth is stronger than cold, that human solidarity is more basic than solipsistic individualism, and finally that well-being is stronger than suffering. To a battered people, this seemed to be a message with meaning, and it provided food for thought as they struggled with disruptive developments in nature, human society, and in themselves. Jesus’ vision of love and service to others as the potential new being is the conclusion of the parabolic drama of Hymns of the Passion.

A life of service to others is the way people should live and also how the church should function in the process of giving birth to an authentic humanity — of making that which is fragile and broken a part of the life of Jesus, who intends all human beings for participation in life. And his love for others would – in a modern setting – also include nature as a neighbor.

Furthermore the Hymns of the Passion emphasize interrelationships in the world. That God is related to the world is strikingly testified to by Jesus’ life in the world. Similarly, all human beings are mutually responsible for each other’s humanity. The Icelandic and classical Christian attitude of “not too long and not too short” discloses a basic adherence to a world-view of balances. This view represents the ethics of moderation. The human being, in all of his or her actions and reactions, should strive not to break the eco-structure of the world.

Power

If Hymns of the Passion is the first of the classics of Icelandic Christianity, the second is Vídalínspostilla. Its basic vision concerns power – which comes as no surprise to anyone who has experienced a large-scale event in Icelandic nature. Anyone who has been in the vicinity of an erupting volcano has experienced something profound, perhaps even had a peak experience due to this manifest power. The trembling in the earth, the unsettling thunder that accompanies a crater vomiting lava, the visual effects — all of these affect both the body and mind of the spectator. On such occasions, a strong sensation of this power is accompanied by an awareness of the minuteness of human life, of how fragile and precarious it is compared to such an awesome display. Icelanders have also known other powers at work: the gigantic strength of the ocean, the crushing jaws of glaciers, the total disregard shown by floods for human settlements and the scorn that blizzards often exhibited toward these tiny humans, trying to survive winter and darkness. By what power do you live — your own, or that of the world? These are straight Lutheran questions, those of classical theology. Vídalín’s dramatic and witty discourse was to the point, and people nodded their heads in agreement.

To this discussion of power, Vídalín always adds some qualifications. The right source of power in a human life will manifest itself in two ways. Faith is only one half of a person. The other half is work to benefit one’s neighbor. Faith has to be praxis, lived in service to others. But the other qualification in Vídalín’s thought concerns this stress on morality: the questioning of worldly lordships. Vídalín connects praxis and the question of power and preserves a highly dramatic and dynamic tension. Faith is rooted in God’s power. Upright morality results from faith, but this then immediately poses the question of whether faith is rooted in the only true source of power, i.e., God. Hence, the dialectic of faith and praxis entails an examination of the powers one relies on. Upright faith and morality necessarily lead to a strong hermeneutic of suspicion, as an integrating bond of faith and morality. At every moment, the Christian needs to examine his or her source, and in consequence open up his or her life to creativity for the benefit of others. But a perspective of critique has to accompany the dynamic of openness to creation in order to expose the false idols, the internal, bodily, or politico-cultural objects that receive the worship due only to God. The emphasis on the limits of the human being, coupled with a theology of power, seems to allow for a potentially fruitful theology, that accents holism and combines a hermeneutic of suspicion with hermeneutic of retrieval.

Tradition applied

In the Icelandic religious tradition there are powerful sources for contextualizing and revisioning theology.

Nature: First, the dimension of nature is an overarching one. Nature used to be the nexus of humans – threatening but also a source of nourishment: an interpretative framework, a source of metaphors for the meaning of human life, experiences, dangers and hopes. The preachers of Iceland, as well as the hymn-writers, have exploited this vein extensively – but few have launched into experimentation in liturgy. I think we could do more there – given the fact that all over the Western world, more and more people find nature to be the face of God, and they tell us pastors that they experience something divine in nature – even more so than in the liturgy of our churches.

Jesus in nature: Secondly, the practical theological profile of Hymns of the Passion concerns Imitatione Christi. The basic vision of the hymns, the view that the intention of love is the welfare of all of creation, is vital in our present world, and it confronts us with serious questions. It just might be that the basic vision, coupled with the strong social awareness of the hymns, requires active participation by others, i.e. a divinization of the world or the ascendance of the kind of humanity that Jesus labored to create. Nature becomes not only a bearer of beauty and love, but also the suffering servant. What does it mean when we see Jesus’ suffering in Nature?

What power? Thirdly, the vision of Vidalínspostilla seems to describe an antithesis to all worldly powers. Everything in the world is considered impotent but nonetheless capable of being energized, if structured in the proper way. The human being is portrayed as basically in need of the proper energy, namely the power of God, who remains the central power plant of absolutely pure cosmic energy. But the network is fragile. Whenever the human being tries to plug into the secondary order of power, the connection is broken, the balance is lost; the power system fails, with an insurmountable loss to all. First of all, the individual is paralyzed, and because of a cosmic interrelatedness, everyone is left in disorder. In conventional terms the question is one of idolatry and faith.

This basic vision seems relevant to our postmodern sentiments, where there are struggles not only between powers. By what source do we live as individuals, as cultures, as a world? Do we live from our own power or from the power that is the fountain of life?

In a world that has gone through an energy crisis, global warming, crises of limited resources and political failures, the question of power remains of interest. By what force do we live? What happens when our energy runs out? There are also experiences of powerlessness in our personal lives. We are also concerned about power in politics, oppression, and the struggle of the oppressed for liberation. How can we meaningfully put these into our prayers and worship?

Sigurdur Arni Thordarson

Leitourgia – annual meeting. Háteigskirkja,
Reykjavík, 12 November, 2015